The Conflict Between the Early Stuart Kings and Parliament: A Historical Analysis

 

THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE EARLY STUARTS KINGS AND PARLIAMENT

   

    The Stuarts are recognized as the first kings of the U.K. Among the Stuarts is Charles 1 who is the second son of James Vi.   King Charles succeeded Prince Henry and became the second Stuart King of Great Britain. Similarly, king James was the first king of Scotland, and then he went, and become the Stuart king of United Kingdom as James Vi. During their reign, there were some issues, but one of the major issues was the poor relations with their parliament. On several occasions, misunderstanding and uncertainties were revolving the relationship between the authorities and the parliament. The parliament was supposed to be democratic and focus on addressing the concerns of the common people. However, the parliament received immense opposition from the dynasty. The crown leadership was only interested in addressing their interest and those of the merchant classes. The poor relations between the legislators and the crown were because of the corrupt and selfish Stuarts kings.

 The early Stuarts wanted to be financially sound at whoever cost. The Stuarts monarch ware unable to create their despotism without making themselves wealthy. Even though the Stuarts were very popular, they were unable to get a substantial grant from the parliament. The parliament was recognizing its rights, and they did not want to break it at the expense of other people to make happy the throne. The parliament resulted not to give heavy finances to the crown with the idea that they may misuse it [1]. On the contrast, the Stuarts argued that for the ruling of the nation, they needed a strong and large army. Furthermore, a strong and big army was to put them in a strategic position to form allies with other kingdoms. The crown insisted on spending more funds in the army. It led to the multiplication economic difficulties in the country. For the crown to deal with the difficult economic, they resulted in the arbitrary taxation. The parliament decided not to accept the direction of the arbitrary taxation condemning it. The legislators insisted there should not be taxes without the consent of the parliament and give out its grouse in the petition of rights.  The move created a conflict between the king and the parliament. The king even though he showed some efforts to avoid assenting to the petition, he was obliged to give his formal consent. The king further ordered the adjournment of the parliament, but before the order takes place the speaker of the house was forced down in its chair and at least three resolutions were passed complaining about the misconduct of the king. Kind Charles then realized that his act was capable of turning the people against him. Therefore, he resulted to rule his kingdom over the decade without using the parliament. With the king ignoring the advice of the parliament and looked to be determined to make sure all his wishes are fulfilled; it was clear that conflict with the legislators was to happen unless either of the two sides tones down their stand.

    The religion was a major factor in the creation of poor relations between the parliament and the Stuarts kings. At first, when James was ascending to the throne, numerous religious parties were working hard to gain concessions from the owner of the realm of the new ruling. At that time the most powerful party was of the puritans [2]. There was the majority in the house of Commons. This group has organized themselves to make sure the Ecclesiastical settlement of Elizabeth has been revisited and revised. The group was catholic, and with the changes in the dynasty, they were plans to restore and align England’s connection with the Roman Pope. On the contract, king James had made up his mind. He had concluded to maintain the same church system that had been started by Queen Elizabeth. However, after Kind Charles took the throne, he married Henrietta Maria of France. Considering France was catholic, Charles was destined to be more favorable of the catholic system. In the end, king Charles under the influence of his wife, he becomes catholic. Its act did not receive a good reception from the people. A lot of people were protesting the move, and some even turn against him. Considering the Puritans were occupying more seats in parliament, they were not happy with the undue Favours that, were given to the Catholics. In the end, king Charles’s religious policies resulted in the famous civil war. King Charles by adopting Catholic in England, was to make happy his wife at the expense of the general public. His predecessors had laid down the foundation of a different church system. The Puritans was well entrenched and prevalent in the whole country, and it was to take more to replace it with another religion. Therefore, the conflict between the parliament and Charles was formed on the ground of egocentric.

The personal nature of King James and Charles created the conflict with the parliament.  The personalities of the two Stuarts kings of England were to the extreme level and the reason enough to create a poor relationship between the two houses. The two were working on the assumptions that they are the representative of God [3]. It made them feel uncomfortable with parliament interference with the affairs of the throne. They went ahead and set precedence to the future king on the approaches to raise funds to take care of the personal expenditure.  For them to achieve this, they employ numerous illegal methods to raise cash. Their successors once ascending to the throne follow the same unorthodox method to raise money for their personal use. Nevertheless. The Stuarts were living a very expensive life. Thus, the source assists from the parliament frequently for the economic grant. The parliament was uncomfortable with the dynasty frequently seeking for financial aid. It resulted in the parliament questioning the dynasty act and the misappropriation of the funds [4]. On the other hand, the Stuarts kings did not welcome the move and resulted in resolving the parliament. The kings have shown that they were unwilling to cut down their expenses, and they were more ready to take unprecedented more to see their needs fully fulfilled. Therefore, the extravagant life made the dynasty to conflict with the parliament.

There was a fight on the control of the ministries. Both the parliament and the kings were fighting the supremacy on the control of the ministers. While the kings argued that they were the one appointing the ministers, the parliament insisted that they are an oversight body. The parliament based its arguments on the practices of the Angevin a Lancastrian [5]. Based on this argument, they argued they claim that they had the right to have control over the ministers. In this regard, the parliament went ahead and, impeach several ministers working for the Stuarts. The act received great opposition from the kings and, they were destined to lose against the parliament [6].  On the other hand, the kings remained adamant and stubborn, and they did not give up their practices. The results are that the parliament, and the people join hands and condemn the executive. The dispute made the kings unpopular among the general practices. The general public was claiming that the executive was defending incompetent people who were only adding misery to them instead of executing their jobs and improve the living standard of the people. Most of the impeached ministers were allegedly corrupt and were involved in various cases of mismanagement and embezzlement of the public funds. Therefore, it was inappropriate for the executive to keep defending and encouraging the same people to be in leading positions. Thus, the poor relationship between the Stuarts Kings, and the parliament was as a result of the dynasty putting more emphasis on their issues and not the concerns and desire of the people.

    Summerly, in the past kings, were given a lot of power and were supposed to live a lavish life. Powerful King was manifested by the number of assets collection, especially valuables assets such a gold. Moreover, the kings were assumed to be powerful if only they had strong armies. Therefore, they were compelled to focus more on addressing these personal issues rather than the plight of the people. On the contract, the people were to be represented in the parliament by the elected legislators. The work of the parliament is the dynasty watchdog and make sure they are protecting the interest of the common people at all costs. With the parliament trying to execute their job by reminding the executive of their roles, the dynasty did not take lightly the interference, and it resulted in conflict. The kings fought back in various ways. They include assuming the directive and resolutions from parliament, dissolving the parliament and ruling for long period without involving the parliament.

References

Burgess, Glenn. Absolute monarchy and the Stuart constitution. Yale University Press, 1996.

Davies, Godfrey. The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660. Vol. 9. Oxford University Press, 1959.

Koenigsberger, Helmut G. "Monarchies and parliaments in early modern Europe." Theory and Society 5, no. 2 (1978): 191-217.

Kenyon, John Philipps, ed. The Stuart constitution, 1603-1688: documents and commentary. Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Monod, Paul Kléber. The power of kings: monarchy and religion in Europe, 1589-1715. Yale University Press, 2001.

Reeve, Lovell J. Charles I and the road to personal rule. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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[1] Davies, Godfrey, 1959

 

[2] Monod, Paul Kléber, 2001

[3] Burgess, Glenn, 1996

[4] Reeve, Lovell J, 2003

[5] Koenigsberger, Helmut G, (1978): 191-217

[6] Kenyon, John Philipps, 1986

Salient Aspects of Diversity and Inclusivity in the Fashion Industry: An Annotated Bibliography

Salient of diversity and inclusivity in fashion industry

Sue Omar, 2020: Is Fashion Finally Addressing Its Diversity Problem? Raconteur

The fashion industry has been biased over the decades. The models usually portrayed are white, blue eyed and skinny. As a result, the fashion industry has gained backlash where it has been called out for racist advertising, lack of diversity on the runways and across campaigns and a lack of cultural appropriation. However, the Black Lives Matter movement has been crucial in creating social awareness on underrepresentation and racial discrimination[1]. Fashion industries have tried to incorporate diversity, but they still portray some kind of ignorance. For instance, in 2018, H&M showcased a black boy wearing the ‘Coolest Monkey in the Jungle Jumper’ leading to controversial debates about the company’s intention. Chloe Pierre, Founder of wellness program, opines that fashion houses need to be educated on the basis of inclusivity. The lack of diversity brings out feelings of low self-esteem, where women and girls perceive their bodies based on the beauty standards set by these fashion houses. For instance, Burberry’s 2019 Christmas campaign included model Ikram Abdi Omar, a Somali Hijab woman. Additionally, the lack of inclusivity has led to a rise of black owned fashion brands. For instance, Fenty by Rihanna. These illustrations mean that racial minorities have taken up their spaces in the fashion industry, and created job opportunities for their people, thus enhancing the spirit of diversity.

The lack of racial diversity has been detrimental to numerous giant fashion houses. These firms are experienced difficult times by missing the aspects of diversity. The world is in unprecedented times, and there is no room for complacency. Therefore, diversity and inclusivity are the solutions to cases of offended and alienated markets. In relation to this, companies should change their cultures and extend their representation to minority and marginalized communities. For the case of racial diversity, firms must ensure the inclusion of black candidates in their workforce and ideas from black communities. Fundamentally, the redemption of the fashion industry significantly depends on diversity and inclusivity, where all the audience feels accommodated and comfortable to associate with a particular brand.

Mindless Magazine (2020): The Fashion Industry and Diversity. What’s the Deal?

Fashion industries portrayed painfully thin models, whom the average person could not relate to. As a result, women were made to believe in a particular standard of beauty that was only seen on television and magazines. However, the fashion industry has evolved significantly of late to include diversity, in terms of race, gender, body sizes and even disability. Fashion houses were triggered to change their old tricks since the younger generations are their main consumers, and they are largely inclusive and diverse. To make money and gain profits, these fashion houses realized they needed to include diversity[2]. As a result, we have seen transgender models, models with skin conditions and dark skinned women grace the runways and it has been exhilarating. For instance, Caitlyn Jenner, who is transgender made the cover for Vanity Fair Magazine in 2015. Winnie Harlow, a model with Vitiligo has been gracing the fashion industry since 2015. In June 2020, Calvin Klein endorse Jani Jones, a black transsexual woman to be a part of its ‘ProudInMyCalvins’ ads campaign. These few examples show that the world I finally ready to embrace people for who they are. Therefore, people should feel free to be themselves, as this is the only way to ultimately enjoy life. 

Changes in the fashion industry have made the industry widen the knowledge through recognition of race, gender and disability. It is made possible by the inclusion of ranges of body sizes. The industry has reached a point where changes are inevitable. Contrary to the older generation, the young ones are adopting a more accepting view and are active in contesting antagonists. Therefore, is it a prerequisite for organizations to adhere to social expectations for sustainability. Amongst the expectations of society is diversity. Fundamentally, most organizational changes are the results of societal pressures. Most of the brands are reluctant to change with the fear of rejection.

Saida Dahir (2019). One Size Does Not Fit All. The Rise of Diverse Fashion Models

Fashion Houses have often portrayed models that look the same. They were always white, skinny and tall. However, people grew accustomed to their representation of beauty and it bored them. They need something different and something more inclusive. Social media has been used as a tool to portray these beauty standards as subjective. According to a study, young girls were introduced two dolls, a white one and a black one. The young girls picked the white one because it was the ‘prettiest’. This shows the extent to which we have been brainwashed by the set standards of beauty. Additionally, social media has been used to pressure the fashion industry to be more inclusive. The fashion industry has been blamed for the case of body dysmorphia globally[3]. However, the ‘OneSizeDoesNotFitAllCampaign’ was particularly crucial in leading to the adoption of plus size women as models. Plus sizes are sizes between ten and fourteen. In 2019, Ali Tate Cutler became the first plus size woman to become a lingerie model. These show that the fashion industry is headed in the right direction. They are paying keen attention to the needs of their customers. By doing this, they are also redefining the standards of beauty, and creating employment for more women.

Society is more inclined now to fashion than before. With people all over having different body shape and sizes, without inclusivity fashion will fail to address its core business. Naturally, fashion should be diversified. The audience expects to see the different taste of fashion in the market regularly.  Therefore, for fashion companies, the challenge is not only accommodating everyone but meet their expectation constantly. Moreover, products need to be universal without any aspect of discrimination. For instance, a firm concentrating on items generally preferable by whites’ will find it hard to sell in a black-dominated community. Therefore, with the diversification of sizes in the market, fashion will remain relevant in all aspects of the market.

Faran Kentcil (2019). Calvin Klein Using Plus-Sized Models To reinvent Its Brand

Calvin Klein has been at the forefront in enhancing diversity of models. They owe this change to the comments and opinions of Generation Z, who are more inclusive and diverse. Prior to their inclusion, the company was undergoing a downward spiral. However, when they endorsed Chika to pose for them in the spring of 2019, they started gaining their attention back. Chika is a plus-sized black woman, who doubles up as a musician too. Using Chika for their ‘I Speak My Truth In #MyCalvins’ made them gain traffic in their website[4]. According Marie Gurlin-Merle the company’s chief marketing officer, engaging and compelling campaigns are those that embrace diversity in race, gender and also in experience and opinions. With the success of the campaign as by Chika, the company has included more plus size models as part of their campaign. These are such as pop icon Beth Ditto, who is queer too. Additionally, the company has extended their diversity to include people with disability, for instance, Kate Virginia who posed in her wheelchair.

Using of plus-Sized modeling is revolutionizing the industry to think beyond the traditional. To many designers they are used to medium-Sized models, and familiar with particular measurements. Therefore, this development calls for designers to develop a diverse set of samples. The designers not limiting themselves in their comfort zone is good for the industry. Know fashion industry can have different variety of products that is all-inclusive. Using the case of Calvin Klei, the invention of the plus-Sized model is a reminder to a fashion house that diversity should be included in the DNA of the company, as the natural extension of the creative concepts in designing. 

Aslaug Magnusdottir (2020). The Time Is Now for Diversity In Fashion.

 For a long time, fashion has ignored its relationship with diversity and inclusivity. In the same measure, there is significant negligence of the evolution of consciousness in the fashion segment. There has been ballooning momentum of customers demanding more insights on the garments on sale. Customers are demanding transparency, seeking clarity on the status of these factories and the environmental effect of the fabrics[5]. For instance, big brands such as Ralph Lauren provide QR codes enabling customers to acquire information and history behind individual’s fabrics. Fundamentally, a sustainable industry is fabricated by different people originating from different backgrounds. Furthermore, the industry has transparency cutting across all levels of its value chain.

 With the latest development of the Black lives matter movement, considerable industries have faced more pressure from the customers to enhance their practices and avail profound insights into the policies on diversity and inclusivity. Subsequently, the fashion industry is amongst the industry with elevated expectations and targets. For instance, during protests on the death of George Floyd, some of the fashion enthusiasts criticize the fashion industry for failing to fight and cartel racism and embrace representation. These developments have been a wake-up call to the fashion industry to ramp up its efforts to refabricate its approach to diversity and inclusivity. In a short time, the industry has witnessed remarkable progress towards diversity and inclusion. For instance, in September 2020, publications by the fashions magazines have for the first time featured diverse talents more prominently compared to previous years. Additionally, fashion organizations for enhancement of diversity and inclusivity; has been structured and fashion organizations have committed to the theme of the promotion of diversity and inclusion to a higher height, without any reservations.

Generally, fostering a diverse and inclusive environment is part of responsible people within an evolved community. Diversity is not only good for inclusivity but also a good business. According to McKinsey & Company, the study indicates a clear relation between diversity and inclusion and performance. The results show that companies that have entrenched ethical and culture varied executive team are 33 per cent more possible to outperform homogenous companies concerning net profits. The study connected the relationship between diversity and performance to factors that include but not limited to a depth of customers’ profound insight, improved decision making and improvement to accessibility of talent. According to Frans Johansson, writer of The Medici Effect, the enhancement of the performance enhancement diversity offers to an organization is the most appropriate long-term factor that will encourage business to increase inclusivity.

Thomai Serdari(2019) Gucci’s Misstep: Why a More Diverse Fashion Industry Is the Answer

 

Italian luxury brand Gucci is facing racial insensitivity through its latest project of an $890 sweater designed with a turtleneck resembling Blackfire. The controversy has since renewed the need for diversity in the fashion industry. The Gucci sweater has faced big opposition from the black communities to the point of the company apologizing and withdrawing the product from the market. This incident is a clear indication of the saliency of cultural fit. There is a need for cultural sensitivity and awareness of different cultures in the fashion industry. Since most of the fashion companies are not only serving one region but myriad regions across the globe, for the brand to be global; they need to be more sensitive in cultural fit[6]. The aspect of the company realizing cultural fit is best implemented with representation. The inclusivity of diverse people gives a company a better platform to properly grasp the culture within a specific market.

For many corporate, the rigid structure has been their main undoing in achieving diversification and inclusion. In larger fashions house the creative director has all the powers over designs. Therefore, this element barred check and balance undertakings to ensure everything are in line. Thus, they should be diversity from the management to the subordinates. It should be complemented by employees given freedom of expression without any intimidation. People are more concerned and sensitive with issues of discrimination in the fashion industry. Social media has given consumers and communities’ power to express their concerns in case a company makes a blunder like the one of Gucci. Such mistakes are costly to these organizations. They may experience a decline in profit because individual team up to boycott the products. Therefore, for the sustainability of fashion shops, they need to adapt mechanisms enabling harboring the needs of all customers without offending the other groups. With diversity and inclusivity, organizations are guaranteed friendly diverse opinions and concepts that translate to longevity and prosperity.

Conclusion

The fashion industry has become largely inclusive and diverse. As a result, more people, women especially have been able to get employment opportunities. One can only hope that this new adoption of inclusivity by the fashion industry continues so that future generations will not have to be subjected to one definition of beauty. 

The world is now more sensitive to diversity and inclusivity. With the help of social media, it's a tragedy for a fashion house to offend a particular audience. Fundamentally, customers tend to be loyal to a particular brand. Thus, any discrimination scandal may reduce the customer base. Therefore, it is only right for fashion companies’ especially big brands to change their mode of operation. Companies should incorporate diversity and representation in all their departments for a sense of belonging and diverse concepts. The designs decision should not be left only to the superior creative director but to all the workers in an organization. In effect, they will be concepts and ideas that favor a particular market and concurrently not offending the other market.

Too many people fashion is culture, way of expression and communication channel. Thus, these aspects play a critical role in defining the future of fashion. Fashion companies are expected to meet these expectations and even surpass them. Though it poses a difficult challenge in terms of creativity, it helps companies in defining their status. In a nutshell, diversity will assume a company of its customer satisfaction and sustainability.

 

 

Bibliography

Dahir Saida. One Size Does Not Fit All. The Rise of Diverse Fashion Models. December 20, 2019 Retrieved from https://www.raconteur.net/hr/diversity-inclusion/diversity-fashion/

Krentcil Faran. Calvin Klein Using Plus-Sized Models To reinvent Its Brand. August 31, 2019. Retrieved from https://nypost.com/2019/08/31/calvin-klein-is-using-plus-size-models-to-reinvent-its-brand/

Magnusdottir, Aslaug. "The Time Is Now For Diversity In Fashion". Forbes, 2020, https://www.forbes.com/sites/aslaugmagnusdottir/2020/11/17/the-time-is-now-for-diversity-in-fashion/?sh=6b1b16ef6dc2.

 

Mindless Magazine. The Fashion Industry and Diversity. What’s the Deal? September 3, 2020 Retrieved from https://mindlessmag.com/2020/09/03/the-fashion-industry-diversity-whats-the-deal/

Serdari, Thomai. "Gucci’S Misstep: Why A More Diverse Fashion Industry Is The Answer - Knowledge@Wharton". Knowledge@Wharton, 2019, https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/gucci-blackface-sweater/.

Sue Omar, 2020: Is Fashion Finally Addressing Its Diversity Problem? Raconteur Retrieved from https://www.raconteur.net/hr/diversity-inclusion/diversity-fashion/

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[1] Sue Omar. “The Black Lives Matter movement has bred a new space for up-and-coming Black designers and has encouraged publications and more prominent brands to be increasingly inclusive,” says MaryAnn Msengi, Black British designer and founder of Farai London

[2] Mindless Magazine. Therefore, like any business decision, it is highly likely that a brand’s move to include diverse models is to ensure that it stays relevant. Over the years we have publicly seen brands torn apart in the media because of their reluctance to become more progressive and as a result, so many have lost consumer loyalty. A brand’s goal is to ensure that they deliver what their consumers want and it is no doubt that consumers have been desperate for this change

[3] Saida Dahir, Due to the fact that the industry has always been “one-size-fits-all,” plus-size individuals have been unjustly underrepresented. The industry has always been known to put models on strict diets and exercise regimens.

[4] Faran Kentcil, Calvin Klein, once known for being a major trendsetter in youth culture — creating often controversial waves with ads starring a 15-year-old Brooke Shields, a skeletal Moss, a muscle-rippling Mark Wahlberg — is finally catching up to Gen Z’s more inclusive, individual idea of cool.

[5]There is ballooning momentum of customers demanding more insights on the garments on sale. fashion industry is amongst the industry with elevated expectations and targets

[6] There is a need for cultural sensitivity and awareness of different cultures in the fashion industry. Since most of the fashion companies are not only serving one region but myriad regions across the globe, for the brand to be global; they need to be more sensitive in cultural fit

Understanding the Impact of COVID-19 on Global Public Debt: Analyzing Debt Structure and Volume

abstract

Through consideration of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on the public debt sphere, this article explains the changes by analyzing debt structure and volume within the scale of global economic status. Learn more about the significant shifts in debt-to-GDP ratios and the broader economic implications

 Since the outbreak of the pandemic, there have been economic recessions. Therefore, with the current coronavirus situation and mitigation strategies undertaken in most countries worldwide, the economic downfall is unprecedented. Being a unique experience, the world does not have an appropriate remedy for recovery from this big economic shock. Countries both in the first world and third world urgently require financial assistance to sustain economic undertakings, especially to reduce the risk of a rise in the unemployment rate. The measures undertaken by different countries authorities to combat the crisis has caused an increment in borrowing and, precisely, public debt. Huge debts are a catalyst for slow investment and economic growth for a long period and, in effect its detrimental to the well-being of the population. Thus, public debt management is amongst the directions of economic growth policy and seamlessly sourcing for its efficiency is a responsibility of each country government. Therefore, through consideration of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on the public debt sphere, it well explained by analyzing debts’ structure and volume in the scale of global economic status.

                The growth of the public debt is because of the government implementation of the country regulation of the economy. Mainly is because of facilitating progressive shifts in the fabrication of the economy. Furthermore, it reflects on the crisis activities transpiring in the country and thus demanding adaptation of stabilization approaches. The unprecedented outbreak of covid-19 led to a severe health crisis, economic downfall and social-negative impacts in most of the nations. Authorities in many countries were forced to impose social-distance and lockdown policies to help in curbing the spread of the virus. Even though these measures have been effective in reducing the number of infections, they have been counter-productive in economic growth. The pandemic has adversely affected considerable sectors of the economy, and at the same time making some of the companies face extinction. Globally, many economies are experiencing the fall of business activities. Both developed and developing countries’ economies are facing hardship, and at least 85% of nations around the globe expects to register sub-zero growth in 2020 (Global Financial Stability Report, 2020). Therefore, for the economy to remain competitive, the government need to borrow to combat the economic challenges. Technically, debt is what facilitates the government to get the extra resources to invest in development projects in all sectors of the economy. With the debt challenge, the ambition of development will be curtailed. On the other hand, the debt problem seldom becomes a complex economic problem to rectify. The current economic downturn has resulted in a sharp rise in government debt. Most governments have found themselves in a situation where they are unable to maintain the dynamics of the financial circumstances under control. With the debt volume increasing unprecedently, it makes it hard to reform the economy, decelerating economic growth and adversely affecting a country’s position in the world community. Regardless, developing countries are the most affected by the pandemic than developed nations. Arguably, the main reasons are over-reliance on revenues from foreign trade and service industry such as tourism. Developing countries are more vulnerable and faced considerable capital overflow (Outlook, 2020). According to IMF, new experience in the level and speed of portfolio outflows in the first quarter of the coronavirus outbreak led to adverse disruptions for emerging markets. For countries with huge economies, they have been able to implement key policies both monetary and fiscal policies. These policies are expensive to many developing countries. For the case of the emerging markets, few policy spaces are a stumbling block to mitigation policies.  Thus, these countries were forced to borrow a colossal amount to prevent an economic downturn.

              The number of finances expected for public compensation is significantly high compared to what have been experienced globally for some period. Most of the public spending currently is being funded by the public debt without considering the aspect of increasing tax levies on items. This is because a considerable number of countries do not have the political capital to contemplate raising taxes during pandemic times where there is economic turndown. They have been various concerns regarding the future expansion of the budget deficit. Considering the budget deficit due to the public support from the authorities is unavoidable, these types of issues will potentially become more widespread among the general public. It is because many people have an understanding that a massive government budget will tend to reflect a massive future burden. The government intervention strategies in place may not only reduce the current people’s income but also, incomes in the future. For instance, unprecedented fiscal stimulus, to ease the economic hardship may encourage government to borrow money to enforce it. In return, these borrowings will turn into a contingent liability for governments. 

 

Figure 1 Fiscal measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic

Therefore, in a situation where the supply of capital goods is ceased because of cessation of corporate production undertakings, capital investment by companies and authorities will not be possible, and capital formation of a nation will be at a standstill (Obayelu et al., 2020). In case the accumulation and renewal of the capital stock remain to stagnate, it may result in the stalling of production and income soon. In the additional implementation of strategies such as furloughs and increment of the leave absence to curb the spread of infection, if prolonged it may cause degradation of human capital encompassed in individuals’ labour. The probability increases with more workers being dismissed from their workplaces. Moreover, corporate bankruptcy as the results of the recession of the economic undertakings may result in loss of management capital (Didier et al., 2021). Mostly, these may result in the contraction of production and income currently instead of in the present. Thus, these costs are inevitable, and society is obliged to take measures to help combat the spread of the virus. The government debt will tend to create present and future burden. With most government lacking the financial ability to support businesses and households, the existence of corporate bankruptcies and unemployment is inevitable. Therefore, for these government to sufficiently support the businesses and households so that to prevent the spread of the virus and economic hardship, they will have to borrow. Therefore, these countries will be forced to default their existing debt and borrow more funds to combat the negative effects of covid-19. Eventually, these countries will be at higher risk of debt distress. More borrowings will result in an increment of public debt to unmanageable levels.

               

       Figure 2 Risk of external debt distress in selected countries

            Generally, when the government is supporting its measures using deficit financing it will lead to both current and future measures. In case the financing tightens capital markets, it will lead to an increase of interest rates and demoralize the private investment. In most cases, deficit financing without considering its production approaches, stalls capital formation and shrinks production and distribution of income. Furthermore, the public debt is not a burden if it does not shrink consumption possibilities. Public debt will be a burden depending on whether it was issued aiming to acter for budget deficit domestically or overseas (Kamli-Ozcan, 2020). Therefore, in the situation of internal debt, the government will be forced to tax even the future generation. The generation is taxed to redeem government bonds. For the external debt, the cut-spending will not fell on the current generation but the future generations will pay through taxes to facilitate settlement of debts. In this regard, most of the countries to help their citizens to combat the economic hardship because of the pandemic; preferred to take external debts. Some of the international bodies that provided debts to various countries to deal with the adverse effects of the pandemic include but not limited to the IMF and the world bank. For example, in responding to the request from the IMF and World Bank, top advanced countries endorsed the Debt service suspension initiative to assist the poorest countries to control the negative effects of coronavirus pandemic (United Nations, 2020). On top of that, they put a temporary suspension of the payments by the emerging countries to repay their official bilateral debt.  Also, with the drop of the interest rates in the global market, developing countries managed to raise their borrowing in the forms of bonds. Significantly, it helped in raising finances but results in the problem of ballooned debts costs. There is a need for effective debt management to control the burden of repayment of debt on the economy both currently and in the future.

 

               The mitigation policies are in place to control the spreading of the virus. Nevertheless, these measures to combat its adverse effects may lead to the debt crisis. This problems for both developed and developing countries. However, the ability of different countries to respond to the covid-19 crisis and problems in the debt sphere varies. Therefore, for the governments to successful curtail the spread of the virus and at the same time avoid debt crisis various measures need to be taken. The government should come up with measures to safely and successfully reopening of the economy. These programs will enhance employment and economic activities. Thus, the following recommendation will be useful in reducing public debt. The government should issue debt with bonds. It will impede the government from raising taxes and provides funds for expenditure spending. Also, another technique of curtailing ballooning of debt is interest rate manipulation. Maintaining interest at low levels rate, will generate tax revenue and eventually reduce national debt. The final recommendation is spending cuts. Its implication is lowering of the deficit.

References

Didier, T., Huneeus, F., Larrain, M., & Schmukler, S. L. (2021). Financing firms in hibernation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Financial Stability, 53, 100837.

Financing for Development in the Era of COVID-19 and Beyond. United Nation. (2020). Retrieved 4 April 2021, from . https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/part_ii-_detailed_menu_of_options_financing_for_development_covid19.pdf.

Global Financial Stability Report. IMF. (2021). Retrieved 4 April 2021, from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/GFSR.

Kalemli-Özcan, Ṣ. (2020). COVID-19 and Emerging Markets: An Epidemiological Model with International Production Networks and Capital Flows.

Obayelu, A. E., Obayelu, O. A., Bolarinwa, K. K., & Oyeyinka, R. A. (2021). Assessment of the Immediate and Potential Long-Term Effects of COVID-19 Outbreak on Socioeconomics, Agriculture, Security of Food and Dietary Intake in Nigeria. Food Ethics, 6(1), 1-22.

Outlook update/April 2020. EDB Macroreview. (2021). Retrieved 4 April 2021, from https://eabr.org/upload/iblock/881/EABR_Macroview_04_2020_EN_web_2.pdf.

Exploring How Perceived Uncertainty of Young Generation Z Consumers Influences Shopping Hesitancy in Cross-Border Purchases Mediated by Flow Experiences

 

1.1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

1.1.1 E-commerce growth and cross-border shopping

Globally, sales on the internet have been on an upward trajectory for a couple of years. The rise of the value of the e-commerce market globally is steady with an annual average increase of at least 20% (Wodnick et al., 2021).  Cross-border e-commerce has increasingly become popular because customers purchase products internationally. Consequently, there are many reasons why consumers would prefer to buy from other countries and not products from their host country. Some of the reasons include but are not limited to the availability of shipping options, payment methods, product quality and alternative varieties. The presence of online platforms facilitates buyers to choose their sellers anywhere in the world. The development has made the brands and retailers incorporate the urgency of exhibiting their products worldwide.  Therefore, cross-border e-commerce can be defined as a situation when the customer trades online with a business or a brand that is operating from a different world (Tu et al., 2018).  The circumstances encompass a brand or a wholesaler that employs an inventory management system to deliver to their customers in their respective countries. Also, it may entail when a business engages in trading activities with a customer through platforms such as the electronic auction platforms.  

 The unprecedented increase in cross-border e-commerce is attributed to the rise of the young metropolitan population heavily relying on technology. According to the research by Forrester, they estimated that the value of cross-border e-commerce as of 2022 was $627 billion which amounts to 20% of the entire value of e-commerce in totality (Wodnick et al., 2021).  Research on the trends in global e-commerce indicates that the difference between emerging economies countries and developed economies is getting smaller. These countries such as India, Brazil and India have positioned themselves as the most promising e-commerce market for cross-border e-commerce in the world (Statista, 2020).  They are ranked in the top five amongst the biggest e-commerce cross-border markets globally. In the narrow sense, India is ranked the third largest market with over 50 million e-buyers.  The development has been triggered by the upgrade of the logistics and broadband infrastructure.  Mexico is ranked fifth globally with at least 40 million e-buyers (Statista, 2021). The growth is due to the availability of cheap internet over the past several years. Government initiative to set up fee internet access countrywide has been central in expediting Mexico’s customs process for less costly imports hence benefiting the cross-broader merchants and shoppers.  According to Cisielski (2020), several countries have different determinants of cross-border online shopping.  E-buyers in China are expecting better quality of the purchased food and also, they have hesitation to buy a product that is not common in their country.  American buyers are moved by the lower prices and also targeting products that are not available in the US. The Europeans purchase products online because of the lower prices, also they are driven by promotions that include but are not limited to free shipping, taxes and haggling prices.

1.1.2 Generation Z

The lifting of restrictions on trade between various countries worldwide and the evolution of a free trade economy has presented a perfect opportunity for the consumer to select products from a wide range of varieties. Previously, marketers were considered to attain a high level of success in accomplishing this dream (Kahawandala et al.,2020). However, as consumers were exposed to a wide range of product varieties, manufacturers were up against intense rivalry to grab the attention of the ever-changing tastes of consumers. Additionally, the purchasing behavior of consumers is pegged such as social, cultural and economic factors.  Age is an important social factor that influences purchasing behavior. Young people especially Generation Z   have known a world without the internet and handheld devices since technology has been readily available and accessible to them.  Since the generation is considered tech-savvy their input in e-commerce has proven to be significant (Zorn et al., 2017). Due to the tremendous technological advances and consumer connectedness, it has become easy for companies to adapt to the exposure to the unique expectations of Generation Z. With the rapid growth of the e-commerce market segment as well as the impact of their demands and decisions, there has been an effort to review and understand the knowledge on the purchasing behavior inclining towards generation Z. Some of these reviews on the aspects of purchasing behavior of generation Z such as consumer’s perceptions and expectations have impact heavily the dynamics of this market segment. The key influential factors controlling the purchasing behavior of Generation Z include but, are not limited to the payment options, peer and social impact, product design as well as brand and the perception of enjoyment (Kahawandala et al.,2020). However, since Generation Z   are yet to be heavily involved into the goods market, there is a huge deficit of proper consumer behavioral analysis on the e-commerce market segment.

1.1.3 Customer Psychological impact in cross-border e-commerce

In comparison to e-commerce, the interest in cross-border e-commerce has been gaining momentum only in recent times.  The market segment is becoming a salient channel for the promotion of international trade since it provides significant opportunities for all nations to gain benefits as a result of global transactions.  Notably, though cross-border e-commerce benefits enormously both the sellers and the buyers, it has intensified market competition at all tiers.  In the cross-border e-commerce environment, due to the existence of differences in language, age and many more factors, consumers fundamentally reveal different levels of attention to CBEC’s characteristics.  Therefore, considering this situation creating the awareness of a consumer to be familiarized with a particular product and induce their purchasing intention is increasingly becoming an important issue for the traders.  Thus, it's important to understand the role of product cognition on consumers’ purchase intention on cross-border e-commerce platforms.  There has been various literature on the purchase intention of the CBEC, however, a significant number of them only focused on the exploration and analysis of the motivation and risk viewpoints.   Thus, for this paper to build a comprehensive argument on the consumer psychology of the CBEC it will focus on the purchasing intention of cross-border e-commerce.  Based on various available literature, Yoon and Zhang (2018) have proven that some of the main factors that are affecting the cross-border adoption on the responses posted on the social media platforms.  An experiment conducted indicated that the adoption of an opinion about a cultural food product in a particular country influences consumers in a different country to purchase the same products.   According to Han and Kim (2019), while testing a research model to assess the influence mechanisms on purchase intentions that exist with the cross-border e-commerce framework, it was found that consumer informedness positively impacts purchase intentions. Furthermore, a test using the valence framework that seeks to analyze the repeat buyer purchase intentions within the framework, indicates that the positive valences exerted the strongest effects on the repeat purchase intentions while the negative valences were pivotal. Another research on the factors that trigger fashion consumers to have repeat intentions, indicated that motivations such as utilitarian, social and hedonic possess positive effects on cross-border e-commerce shopping purchase intentions. Even though, to a significant extent it was perceived risky, the research revealed that it did not negatively influence purchasing intentions.

1.2 Problem statement

1.2.1 challenge of shopping hesitancy in cross-border e-commerce

  Shopping hesitancy in cross-border e-commerce within the generation Z consumers is a multifaceted change that is pegged on numerous factors. Although Generation Z is widely known for frontier tech savvy and preference for online shopping, they have shown reluctance when it comes to cross-border shopping due to a lack of trust in foreign websites.  The reluctance can be attributed to various reasons that include but they not limited to. 1) trust and security issues have raised storage of personal and final information as well as data breaches and fraud. Generation Z are wary of these issues and has heavily attributed this to their reluctance to engage such websites. 2) shipping and delivery issues are seen to have impacted uncertainty surrounding the shipping duration. The young people are known to be very impatient and thus expect fast and reliable services. Furthermore, the frequent cases of delays and loss of packages reported in cross-border e-commerce have discouraged them to partake in purchasing products online.  3)   price and hidden additional costs that eventually make online purchases to be very costly.  Conventionally, generation Z is attracted to competitive pricing, any hidden additional costs such as the costs associated with shipping and customs make the overall purchasing of products online less appealing. The lack of transparency regarding these costs can greatly contribute to shopping hesitancy.

1.2.2 Perceived uncertainty influencing shopping hesitancy

 Although CBEC contributes significantly to the promotion of business opportunities, it is common knowledge that this type of e-commerce is far more complicated and has more risks compared to domestic e-commerce.  It is worth noting that e-commerce is not widely preferred in various markets such as the European markets. According to the research by the CMI (2023) cited in Jakobsson et al., (2023), the majority of European buyers prioritize purchasing from domestic sellers at a value estimated at 81%. Precisely, In Hungary, the majority of the people engaging in the e-commerce markets also have a high tendency to shop from the Hungarian online shops.  It's only less than 40% of the Hungarian online shoppers that are involved in the CBEC. Thus, the inquiries on the perception and behaviour of Hungarian e-consumers in cross-border e-commerce may be very pivotal.

According to Kamalul Ariffin et al., (2018), perceived risk in e-commerce is based on the consumers’ concerns regarding the emergence of both financial and product risks. While the financial risk entails the possibility of incurring losses due to losing money or incurring additional charges in the process of engaging in e-commerce, product risk arises as the result of the goods not meeting expectations.  Therefore, according to the principal-agent perspective, the potential fraud risk in the CEBC may be the result of the scepticism of the e-buyers in respect to the potential impact of the undisclosed information and actions while engaging e-commence.

1.3 Research Questions

The primary research question How does perceive uncertainty influence shopping hesitancy among young Gen Z consumers in cross-border purchases?

The other research questions

What role do flow experiences play in mediating this relationship?

What are the characteristics and buying behaviours of Gen Z?

1.4 Significance of the study

 The study delves into a certain traits and preferences of generation Z consumers, who are well informed on the digital natives and exhibit distinct online shopping behaviours compared to the others generation. Therefore, by the examination of their attitudes towards CEBC, the study aim is to enrich the consumer behaviour theory with profound insights into how the development of technology and the global connectivity influence the buying decisions.

 Notably, the studies on the traditional consumer behaviour models most of the cases nexus is on the domestic market.  In this context, this study expands on the theoretical framework by the inclusion of the complexities of CEBC such as the logistical complexities. It provides a nuanced understanding on the ways in which these impact Gen Z’s shopping habits, thus broadening the scope of consumer behaviour theory. Furthermore, the study focuses on the highflying the role of technology and how they are shaping Gen Z’s shopping experiences. By the integration of these technological aspects into the consumer behaviour theory, the paper offers a more comprehensive view of a contemporary consumer dynamics.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

The paper is structured into the following segments

Introduction

 Literature review

Methodology

Findings

 Discussion

 Conclusion and recommendation